Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction
*Identify a specific learning goal and how you would
incorporate two learning theories highlighted in Chapter 4
to achieve this goal.
Cognitive (problem solving/synthesis level)
Schema Theory (knowledge is represented in long-term memory as packets of information)
"Given two cartoon characters of the student's choice, the student will be able to list five major personality traits of each of the two characters, combine these traits (either by melding traits together, multiplying together complimentary traits, or negating opposing traits) into a composite character, and develop a short (no more than 20 frames) storyboard for a cartoon that illustrates three to five of the major personality traits of the composite character."
*Find a reference that describes Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction. Then create a table or chart that compares and contrasts those events with the first principles described in Chapter 7 and describe how you would apply each of the first principles to the goal you’ve developed from the first activity in this reflection.
Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction Reference Website Source:
Compare/Contrast Chart
Explanations
1.Gain attention. Present a problem or a new situation. Use an "interest device" that grabs the learner's attention. This can be thought of as a teaser -- the short segment shown in a TV show right before the opening credits that is designed to keep you watching and listening). The ideal is to grab the learners' attention so that they will watch and listen, while you present the learning point. You can use such devices as:
1.Gain attention. Present a problem or a new situation. Use an "interest device" that grabs the learner's attention. This can be thought of as a teaser -- the short segment shown in a TV show right before the opening credits that is designed to keep you watching and listening). The ideal is to grab the learners' attention so that they will watch and listen, while you present the learning point. You can use such devices as:
◦ Storytelling
◦ Demonstrations
◦ Presenting a problem to be solved
◦ Doing something the wrong way (the instruction would then show how to do it the right
way)
way)
◦ Why it is important
2.Inform learner of Objective. This allows the learner's to organize their thoughts and
around what they are about to see, hear, and/or do. There is a saying in the training filed to 1) tell them what you're going to tell them, 2) tell them, and 3) tell them what you told them. This cues them and then provides a review, which has proven to be effective. e.g. describe the goal of a lesson, state what the learners will be able to accomplish and how they will be able to use the knowledge.
around what they are about to see, hear, and/or do. There is a saying in the training filed to 1) tell them what you're going to tell them, 2) tell them, and 3) tell them what you told them. This cues them and then provides a review, which has proven to be effective. e.g. describe the goal of a lesson, state what the learners will be able to accomplish and how they will be able to use the knowledge.
3.Stimulate recall of prior knowledge. This allows the learners to build on their previous knowledge or skills. Although we are capable of having our "creative" minutes, it is much easier to build on what we already know. e.g. remind the learners of prior knowledge
relevant to the current lesson, provide the learners with a framework that helps learning and remembering.
4.Present the material. Chunk the information to avoid memory overload. Blend the information to aid in information recall. This is directly related to Skinner's "sequenced learning events." This allows learners to receive feedback on individualized tasks, thereby correcting isolated problems rather than having little idea of where the root of the learning challenge lies. Bloom's Taxonomy and Learning Strategies can be used to help sequence the lesson by helping you chunk them into levels of difficulty.
5.Provide guidance for learning. These are not the presentation of content, but are
instructions on how to learn. This is normally simpler and easier than the subject matter or content. It uses a different channel or media to avoid mixing it with the subject matter. The rate of learning increases because learners are less likely to lose time or become frustrated by basing performance on incorrect facts or poorly understood concepts.
6.Elicit performance. Practice by letting the learner do something with the newly acquired behavior, skills, or knowledge.
7.Provide feedback. Show correctness of the learner's response, analyze learner's behavior. This can be a test, quiz, or verbal comments. The feedback needs to be specific, not, "you are doing a good job" Tell them "why" they are doing a good job or provide specific
guidance.
8.Assess performance. Test to determine if the lesson has been learned. Can also give general progress information
9.Enhance retention and transfer. Informs the learner about similar problem situations, provide additional practice, put the learner in a transfer situation, and review the lesson.
Merrill’s First Principles
The demonstration principle:
Learning is promoted when learners observe a demonstration. Provide students with clear and complete instructions that show learners the task or the problem they will be able to do or solve.
The application principle:
Learning is promoted when learners apply the new knowledge. Make sure that students are engaged at problem or task level not just operation or action level. Requires that learners use their knew knowledge in a problem-solving task.
The activation principle:
Learning is promoted when learners activate prior knowledge or experience. Students should have relevant previous experience promotes learning by allowing them to build upon what they already know and giving the instructor information on how to best direct learners.
The integration principle:
Learning is promoted when learners integrate their new knowledge into their everyday
world. Effective instruction occurs when learners are given the opportunity to demonstrate, adapt, modify and transform new knowledge to suit the needs of new contexts and situations. Being able to reflect through discussions with
world. Effective instruction occurs when learners are given the opportunity to demonstrate, adapt, modify and transform new knowledge to suit the needs of new contexts and situations. Being able to reflect through discussions with
peers and the teacher, enables long term learning.
The task-centered principle:
Learning is promoted when learners engage in a task-centered instructional strategy.
A task is a problem or situation that may be encountered in a real-world situation. Learning objectives of the types of problems learners will be able to solve at the end of the learning process may also substitute for a problem.
*Whole-Task, Scaffolding, and Mathemagenic Methods
Whole-task Approach-focus is on the overall goal to be attained throughout the entire
process. The task is learned as a whole rather than a set of individual sub-skills.
process. The task is learned as a whole rather than a set of individual sub-skills.
Scaffolding-teacher helps the student master a task or concept that the student is initially unable to grasp independently. Teacher allows student to complete as much of the task as possible and only helps with those skills that are beyond the student’s capabilities.
Mathemagenic-that learning tasks must differ from each other on all dimensions that also differ in the real world, such as the conditions under which the tasks are performed, the way they are presented, the saliency of their defining characteristics, and their familiarity.
*Table 9.2 ARCS Model Categories and Subcategories
•Attention:
Gaining and keeping the learner's attention. Keller's strategies for attention include sensory stimuli (as discussed previously), inquiry arousal (thought provoking questions), and variability (variance in exercises and use of media).
•Relevance:
The training program should answer the critical question, "What's in it for me?" Benefits should be clearly stated.
•Confidence:
The confidence aspect of the ARCS model is required so that students feel that they should put a good faith effort into the program. If they think they are incapable of achieving the objectives or that it will take too much time or effort, their motivation will decrease. In technology-based training programs, students should be given estimates of the time required to complete lessons or a measure of their progress through the program.
•Satisfaction:
Learners must obtain some type of satisfaction or reward from the learning experience. This can be in the form of entertainment or a sense of achievement. Other forms of external rewards would include praise from a supervisor, a raise, or a promotion. Ultimately, though, the best way for learners to achieve satisfaction is for them to find their new skills immediately useful and beneficial on their job.
*Benefits of Engaging in Design Research
It is important to use instructional design models and educational research in order to illustrate a dramatic growth of attention to increases and decreases to motivational factors in learning and performance of students. Research has shown that it is possible to use these models to show that it is possible to build valid, systematic approaches to understanding and influencing learner motivation, which leads to an enhanced learning environment and an increase in human performance in education as well as the workforce.
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